换句话说,无界任务是你希望投入尽可能多时间的任务——这就是为什么前沿 token 在这里基本没有商量余地。这类任务往往一辈子都不够用。由于这些任务极强的凸性、幂律特征,其 ROI 方程主要围绕增量收入而非成本节约。更快严格意义上就是更好,而竞争动态意味着抢先是唯一最重要的事。你想要最好的 AI 模型、品类里最好的软件、alpha 最多的交易策略。
前沿模型将在这里占主导。就像 F1 一样,赛车只能撑 9 个月并不重要——你永远需要开最好的那一辆。
04
一半的前沿收入在自我强化
AI 研发、软件工程、交易三类约占前沿实验室推理收入的 50%,共用一个循环:多花 token,换来更多收入和融资,再花更多 token。
反身性需求
上面描述的框架今天已经在实时上演。
我的看法是:前沿模型史无前例的收入爬坡,是由一小组无界、长时程任务驱动的。我的最佳猜测是:(1) AI 研发,(2) 软件工程,(3) 交易。
按顺序来说:
AI 研发:传闻各实验室如今把 60% 的算力预算花在训练上、只有 40% 用于推理,也可以合理假设全球 50% 的 AI 算力被用于训练。仅此一项就足以让 AI 研发成为毫无疑问的第一大用例。但我还预计推理这部分里也有相当比例本质上属于某种 AI 研发。比如,第二梯队的 AI 实验室用前沿模型做研究和合成数据生成,或是应用型 AI 公司在做后训练。姑且算前沿 AI 实验室推理收入的约 20% 来自 AI 研发。
软件工程:软件工程是 AI 需求最显而易见的任务类别,但微妙之处在于,这里对前沿 token 的需求有很大一块来自初创公司和 AI 公司——而不是传统的 F500 企业。初创公司不受企业官僚体系束缚,能更快地交付更多代码。交付得越多,从客户和投资人那里拿到的钱就越多。此外,初创公司之间为市场份额、人才和 VC 资金激烈竞争——竞争迫使它们使用前沿 token。成熟的 AI 公司(NVIDIA、Amazon 等)也是同理。姑且算这又占前沿 AI 实验室推理收入的约 15%。
交易:如果「量化交易公司是前沿 AI token 最大买家之一」的传闻属实,且「客户在前沿 AI token 上的支出呈幂律分布」的传闻也属实,那么交易占到前沿 token 收入两位数百分比,我不会感到意外。其他投资机构同样如此。姑且也算这占前沿 AI 实验室推理收入的 15%。
需求模型还应指导基建之外的资本配置。价值会继续沉淀到物理 AI 供应链。但一个较少被讨论的方向是:价值也会沉淀到那些追逐无界、长时程任务的团队身上。
在大约十年内,今天由有界任务创造的价值中,将有一大块从人类劳动手中被拿走、转移到数据中心。从财务上看,可以把这些任务对应的劳动 GDP 打个折扣,再把它挪到 AI 供应链上。非前沿模型将在量上占主导,人也许仍能赚钱(做销售、设计以及一些长时程规划),但沉淀到公司层面的价值会很少。
我预计大部分价值将沉淀到无界任务上。尤其是那些能让世界相信自己有能力把资本开支(即 token)配置到这些长时程、无界任务上的团队。这是模型能力之外的领域:你永远可以用更长的时间视野去思考,我们将看到创业者去做那些以今天的方式需要好几辈子才能建成的公司。其中一部分可能是 AI 实验室自己,一部分将是新公司。
Everyone models AI supply and nobody models demand. This fills in the demand half: about half of frontier revenue feeds itself.
Indigo's conclusion
About half of frontier revenue comes from self-reinforcing demand, AI R&D first of all. The same facts read as an engine on the way up and a crack on the way down. Giovanni shows where it would crack, then sides with the bulls; his own framework supports the bear case he waves away.
How to read this The author sells nothing, but he leans bullish; by his own account he is “extremely optimistic” about future demand. The three frameworks are worth keeping: tokens as time, bounded vs. unbounded tasks, self-reinforcing demand. The shares (AI R&D 50%+, software engineering 15%, trading 15%) he labels himself as estimates and rumors. Treat them as guesses, not facts.
What to remember
Nobody had seriously modeled the demand half; the debate over AI spending has been almost all supply.
Tokens as time, plus bounded vs. unbounded, is a useful cut: tasks with a ceiling compete on price, tasks without one on the frontier.
Self-reinforcing demand belongs only to the frontier, where a 6-month lead takes the market. The three sources: AI R&D, software engineering (mostly startups and AI companies), trading.
Self-reinforcing, correlated and swinging with the cycle: an engine going up, a crack going down. Bulls and bears agree on the facts and disagree on when it turns.
Breakdown · 6 steps
01
Demand decides how much gets spent, who wins, and where value lands
Analysts assume unlimited demand and never ask where it comes from. The hook is Dwarkesh's question: if frontier intelligence is expected to earn $100B per GW, why don't labs buy more compute? Read this part →
02
Tokens are time: two axes from the METR chart
Each model's tokens stand for how long a task it can finish on its own: o3 about 30 minutes, Mythos about 3 hours. Then two axes: can a model do it yet, and does the task have a ceiling. Read this part →
03
Bounded tasks go to the cheapest, unbounded to the frontier
Bounded tasks pay off in saved cost, so non-frontier and open models win and you automate once. Unbounded tasks pay off in revenue, first to arrive takes all, so the frontier wins. Read this part →
04
Half of frontier revenue feeds itself
AI R&D, software engineering and trading make up about 50% of frontier labs' inference revenue. All three run the same loop: spend more on tokens, earn and raise more, spend more on tokens. Read this part →
05
It cuts both ways, and he still sides with the bulls
The three sources of demand move together and swing hard with the cycle. Regulation, rate hikes or an outside shock could set off a downward spiral. He admits the demand is fragile but expects no reversal soon. Read this part →
06
Value goes to teams on unbounded work; capital allocation gets repriced
Within a decade the value of bounded tasks moves from human labor to data centers, and little of it stays with companies. Markets will discount repeatable cash flows and pay up for teams that invest well for the long run. Read this part →
What it means for Rewired Index
A demand model is the missing half of the supply model, and it helps judge which layer and which kind of task value lands in. Related names: SPCX and TSLA (live cases of capital allocation being repriced; Giovanni names both); the self-reinforcing revenue mix of frontier labs (private; watching only).
What would change my mind
regulation, rate hikes or an outside shock arrives and frontier token demand does not shrink; or the three self-reinforcing categories turn out to be far below 50% of frontier inference revenue.
How to read this
The author sells nothing, but he leans bullish; by his own account he is “extremely optimistic” about future demand. The three frameworks are worth keeping: tokens as time, bounded vs. unbounded tasks, self-reinforcing demand. The shares (AI R&D 50%+, software engineering 15%, trading 15%) he labels himself as estimates and rumors. Treat them as guesses, not facts.
Demand decides how much gets spent, who wins, and where value lands
Analysts assume unlimited demand and never ask where it comes from. The hook is Dwarkesh's question: if frontier intelligence is expected to earn $100B per GW, why don't labs buy more compute?
AI capex for 2028 is forecast to be larger than the budget of France. Frontier AI labs’ revenue ramp justifies almost any number. Reflexivity in AI demand is a double-edged sword, and it's now a good time to start talking about it.
On his latest podcast, @dwarkesh_sp wonders why the frontier labs are not spending even more on compute, given expectations of $100B/GW in revenue for frontier intelligence. At these rates, if Anthropic were to monetize all of its expected capacity, it could be at $500B ARR by the end of 2026 - enough to be the third-largest company in the world by revenue.
Nobody is talking seriously about AI demand. Today, analysts model infinite demand for AI for any level of supply, without really breaking down where that demand is coming from. But demand is extremely important, it dictates how much capital frontier labs can invest, which models will be used, and where the value will accrue.
Below is my framework for thinking about AI demand, the case for frontier tokens, and a few adjacent topics.
I am extremely optimistic about future demand for AI. But my framework suggests that demand for frontier tokens may be partly reflexive, fueled by the AI boom itself. This is great and accelerates growth, but it may also spiral in the opposite direction.
All numbers are estimates.
02
Tokens are time: two axes from the METR chart
Each model's tokens stand for how long a task it can finish on its own: o3 about 30 minutes, Mythos about 3 hours. Then two axes: can a model do it yet, and does the task have a ceiling.
Tokens as units of time
METR’s long-horizon chart is possibly the most important chart in the world today.
Based on the chart, I often say we can think about tokens as units of time. Tokens from each model represent a certain task-horizon, and frontier models have the longest duration. On the chart, o3 is ~ 30 min, while Mythos is ~ 3h. A software engineer using o3 can delegate tasks of up to 30 min, while one using Mythos is significantly sped up - delegating up to 3h.
The chart also provides a framework for structuring human activities. Let’s define:
Long-horizon vs. short-horizon tasks. “Long-horizon” tasks are the ones that no model succeeds at yet - i.e., above the curve which runs from GPT-2 to Mythos. Everything else, below the curve, is “short-horizon” - effectively, it’s already been solved by AI.
Bounded vs. unbounded tasks. “Bounded” tasks are those for which, at some point, the curve stops scaling: doing taxes is a bounded task, there’s a limit to its complexity. “Unbounded” tasks are those for which you can always do more: AI research, exploring space, longevity.
03
Bounded tasks go to the cheapest, unbounded to the frontier
Bounded tasks pay off in saved cost, so non-frontier and open models win and you automate once. Unbounded tasks pay off in revenue, first to arrive takes all, so the frontier wins.
Labor taxonomy
Demand for AI is ultimately demand for labor. And to think about AI demand-side dynamics, we need a new labor taxonomy. Imagine a 2-by-2 matrix, combining the bounded-unbounded categories with long-horizon and short-horizon ones:
Bounded Tasks
For these tasks, AI will soon saturate all benchmarks: one can just trust METR’s trendline. You can easily one-shot a simple frontend (bounded, short-horizon) with any AI model today, while tax planning (bounded, long-horizon) may take another year or two, but we’ll get there.
Bounded tasks are also those for which one would generally like to spend the least amount of time possible (little upside, mostly just a matter of not making mistakes). Here, demand for AI will be extremely high, but converge on the cheapest possible option: the ROI for bounded tasks is mostly a function of cost savings rather than additional revenue (there’s only so much demand for accounting).
Therefore, non-frontier models will dominate: no need to pay for the labs’ margins, great inference providers are available, and post-training of smaller models is effective. And open source models will continue to catch up with the frontier - with a lag that is mostly irrelevant for these tasks, since you just have to automate them once.
Unbounded Tasks
Unbounded tasks are very different: by definition, you can always do more. Exploring space, you can always explore further. Shrinking the node on a chip, you can always shrink it more. Improving AI, you will always be able to make it better. And you can always build more software, and you always need to update trading strategies.
In other words, unbounded tasks are those for which you’d want to spend as much time as possible - that’s why frontier tokens are mostly non-negotiable. These are the kinds of tasks for which one life is often not enough. Due to the very convex, power-law nature of these tasks, the ROI equation is mostly focused on additional revenue rather than cost savings. Going faster is strictly better, and competitive dynamics mean that being first is the single most important thing. You want the best AI model, the best software in the category, the trading strategy with the most alpha.
Frontier models will dominate here. Just like in F1, it doesn't matter if the car only lasts 9 months - you always need to drive the best possible one.
04
Half of frontier revenue feeds itself
AI R&D, software engineering and trading make up about 50% of frontier labs' inference revenue. All three run the same loop: spend more on tokens, earn and raise more, spend more on tokens.
Reflexive demand
The framework described above is already playing out today, in real time.
My view is that the unprecedented revenue ramp for frontier models is driven by a small set of unbounded, long-horizon tasks. My best guess is: (1) AI R&D, (2) software engineering, and (3) trading.
In that order:
AI R&D: Rumor has it that labs today spend 60% of their compute budget on training and only 40% on inference, and it’s fair to assume that 50% of the world’s AI compute capacity is used for training. That would already make AI R&D the clear #1 use case. But I’d also expect a significant portion of the inference bucket to be some form of AI R&D. For instance, runner-up AI labs using frontier models for research and synthetic data generation, or the applied AI companies doing post-training. Let’s say ~ 20% of inference revenue for the frontier AI labs is coming from AI R&D.
Software engineering: Software engineering is the obvious task category for AI demand, but the nuance is that a large chunk of the demand for frontier tokens here is coming from startups and AI companies - not traditional F500 companies. Startups are unconstrained by corporate bureaucracy, and can just ship more code, faster. The more they ship, the more money from clients and investors. Additionally, startups compete fiercely with each other for market share, talent, and VC money - and competition forces them to use frontier tokens. The same goes for the mature AI companies (NVIDIA, Amazon, etc.). Let’s say this is another ~ 15% of inference revenue for the frontier AI labs.
Trading: If rumors that quant trading firms are some of the largest spenders on frontier AI tokens are true, and if rumors that spend on frontier AI tokens by customers is power-law distributed are true, then it wouldn’t surprise me to see trading as a double-digit percentage of frontier token revenue. This holds for other investment firms as well. Let’s say this too is 15% of inference revenue for the frontier AI labs.
If this attribution is roughly right, then we could say that these three categories of tasks alone account for ~ 50% of frontier AI lab inference revenue.
What is especially interesting is that these three sets share a tight feedback loop between token spend and revenue, such that revenue growth is reflexive:
AI R&D: AI labs have consistently translated AI R&D spend into stronger model capabilities, which increase revenue and the ability to raise capital almost instantaneously, and in turn allow the labs to spend more on R&D, and so on;
Software engineering: A startup using AI can build a lot of software fast, use that to scale revenue and raise equity, and quickly deploy those resources on even more tokens, and so on;
Trading: A trading firm can test the impact of token spend instantaneously on the market, and the higher the profits, the more it can reinvest in AI-powered strategies, and so on.
I describe demand for these tasks as reflexive because they all share the same pattern: larger spend on tokens yields more revenue and a stronger ability to raise capital, which in turn gives them more resources to invest in tokens, and so on - seemingly with no upper bound.
For these tasks, the only constraint is how many tokens you can allocate to the problem. The best companies are the ones that can raise enough capital and allocate it to the right bets - as Anthropic did by being the first to narrow its focus to coding. And the cool thing here is that the total addressable market is roughly infinite - token spend expands the horizon of what we can accomplish, and ROI is driven by higher revenue.
And for these tasks, only frontier models matter. This is what makes frontier models such a great business today. Reflexive demand is only for frontier models, even a six-month lead over open source is more than enough to capture the whole market.
By contrast, bounded tasks are being addressed by dozens and dozens of startups. This is great and inevitable. However, there is no reflexivity for this kind of revenue. You can perhaps cut costs, but there is no immediate feedback loop between lower costs and increased revenue. And a percentage of the cost savings has to be shared with the RLaaS provider, and there’s a ceiling on cost cuts.
On the debate between open and closed source, or on consumer versus enterprise, I will leave the implications to the reader.
05
It cuts both ways, and he still sides with the bulls
The three sources of demand move together and swing hard with the cycle. Regulation, rate hikes or an outside shock could set off a downward spiral. He admits the demand is fragile but expects no reversal soon.
Reflexivity is double-edged
Reflexive demand for frontier tokens is a double-edged sword. Reflexivity is great on the way up, awful on the way down.
The numbers at stake are so large that one has to consider the scenario where, at least temporarily, demand for frontier tokens contracts. In such a case, the issue is that the key demand drivers are correlated and super procyclical.
Correlation
Demand contraction for any of the three key tasks could hit up to 15–20% of frontier token revenue directly and, due to correlation, up to 50%.
Right now: (i) higher revenue for frontier AI drives the equity value of the labs up, which (ii) encourages more investment in VC, a large share of which is spent on tokens, which (iii) increases the value of both labs and startups, and in turn (iv) makes the public markets go up, with the quant firms profiting from it and (v) increasing their spend on frontier tokens. This is just one example, but contagion could start from any of the steps in this loop.
Super procyclicality
These tasks are super procyclical because their demand accelerates as the cycle goes up, and may accelerate in the opposite direction when the cycle goes down.
The state of the market directly impacts demand for all three key drivers. Market going up allows quant trading firms to spend more on tokens, but also grants AI labs and startups more capital to invest.
Under this framework, you may only need one simple trigger to start a reflexive correction downwards. As examples, off the top of my head: regulation slowing down progress in AI capabilities; higher interest rates slowing down the buildout; any exogenous shock.
A model for AI demand
Obviously, we need a model for frontier token demand.
Super procyclical, heavily correlated demand is fragile. While there have been some bumps along the way, the first ChatGPT release almost coincided with the most recent NASDAQ relative bottom, and both private and public markets have gone up and to the right. We haven’t even explored how a potential slowdown in revenue for the AI labs could impact the markets. It’s unlikely that this will happen anytime soon (next-generation models may be a catalyst for acceleration), but precisely for this reason it is now a great time to think about the topic.
Given current levels of annual AI capex and revenue, a model for AI demand would complement the one we currently have for supply, and inform critical investment decisions - from financing to investing - especially for the companies exposed to the buildout. The framework above may be a starting point.
06
Value goes to teams on unbounded work; capital allocation gets repriced
Within a decade the value of bounded tasks moves from human labor to data centers, and little of it stays with companies. Markets will discount repeatable cash flows and pay up for teams that invest well for the long run.
Value beyond
A model for demand should also inform capital allocation beyond the buildout. Value will keep accruing to the physical AI supply chain. But while less discussed, value will also accrue to teams going after unbounded, long-horizon tasks.
Within a decade or so, a large chunk of the value generated by bounded tasks today will be taken from human labor and moved to data centers. Financially, one could take labor GDP for those tasks, apply a percentage cut, and move it to the AI supply chain. Non-frontier models will dominate volumes, people may still make money (doing sales, design, and some long-horizon planning), but little value will accrue to the company.
I expect most of the value to accrue to unbounded tasks. And in particular, to teams that can convince the world of their ability to allocate capex (i.e., tokens) to go after these long-horizon, unbounded tasks. This is the domain outside of model capabilities: you can always think with a longer horizon, and we will see founders going after companies that would take several lifetimes to build today. Some of it may be the AI labs themselves, some of it will be new companies.
Today, the market rewards recurring, predictable cash flows - and hates R&D and capex spent with no short-term tangible results in sight. In the future, we may see the inverse: the market will heavily discount repeatable cash flow from bounded tasks, while repricing teams that can wisely allocate capex for the long term.
Elon Musk is not an anomaly - he’s the first example of this. Tesla and SpaceX trade at 10X what an old-fashioned financial analyst would price their cash flows at. But the market routinely prices Elon’s ability to allocate R&D spend to what any reasonable person would consider impossible. With superintelligence, there will be several more Elons.
More to say here - but this is a story for another day.
Where Indigo landsFurther
Indigo's conclusion
About half of frontier revenue comes from self-reinforcing demand, AI R&D first of all. The same facts read as an engine on the way up and a crack on the way down. Giovanni shows where it would crack, then sides with the bulls; his own framework supports the bear case he waves away.
What to remember
Nobody had seriously modeled the demand half; the debate over AI spending has been almost all supply.
Tokens as time, plus bounded vs. unbounded, is a useful cut: tasks with a ceiling compete on price, tasks without one on the frontier.
Self-reinforcing demand belongs only to the frontier, where a 6-month lead takes the market. The three sources: AI R&D, software engineering (mostly startups and AI companies), trading.
Self-reinforcing, correlated and swinging with the cycle: an engine going up, a crack going down. Bulls and bears agree on the facts and disagree on when it turns.
Claims you can check later
Claim
Who
When we will know
How firm
Three self-reinforcing categories (AI R&D, software engineering, trading) make up about 50% of frontier labs' inference revenue
Giovanni
Now
First-hand estimate he labels guess and rumor
Bounded tasks go to non-frontier and open models; unbounded tasks go to the frontier
Giovanni
Under way
First-hand; a framework call
Frontier token demand swings hard with the cycle and moves as one; a single outside shock could set off a downward spiral
Giovanni
No date
First-hand; a call on mechanism
Within a decade the value of bounded tasks moves from human labor to data centers, and little of it stays with companies
Giovanni
Around 2036
First-hand; a call on direction
Markets will discount repeatable cash flows and pay up for teams that invest well for the long run (more Elons)
Giovanni
No date
First-hand; a vision
Back on the long-running theses
adds to
Value moves up to what can't be rented Giovanni says value flows to teams on unbounded work that dare to invest for the long run: the capital-markets version of this view.
adds to
Whether verifiable domains generalize Use both rulers, bounded vs. unbounded and easy vs. hard to verify, to judge more finely where value lands.
conflicts + adds to
Neil Movva: make tokens abundant, make intelligence 1000x cheaper No contradiction: Neil says the cheapest token wins; Giovanni adds that this holds only for tasks with a ceiling.
adds to
fin, AI semiconductor endgame III: the bubble is a timing mismatch fin does the supply-side math, Giovanni the demand side. Both point to the same real risk: spending and returns arriving at different times.
adds to
a16z Machine Age Fund: demand is real, financing fragility skipped a16z says demand is real; Giovanni says where: three kinds of long tasks with no ceiling.
What it means for Rewired Index
A demand model is the missing half of the supply model, and it helps judge which layer and which kind of task value lands in. Related names: SPCX and TSLA (live cases of capital allocation being repriced; Giovanni names both); the self-reinforcing revenue mix of frontier labs (private; watching only).
What would change my mind
regulation, rate hikes or an outside shock arrives and frontier token demand does not shrink; or the three self-reinforcing categories turn out to be far below 50% of frontier inference revenue.
Finished. Indigo's take on this piece is in two places: